Chapter 5
BASIC CO-OPERATIVE STRUCTURES
Introduction
In this chapter we list the co-operative structures with the help of which lessons and projects manifesting the principles of co-operative learning usually are structured. We use 4-5 basic structures/techniques and any number of their combinations to develop co-operative relationship in micro-groups.{23} The most important issue is the acquisition of these basic co-operative structures and the presentation of their combinations.
The description of each basic co-operative structure consists of four sections:
- A short definition of the structure
- General description of the structure
- Description of the steps of the structure
- Comparison of the structure against co-operative principles
For the efficient application of these structures it is necessary for the co-operative teacher to be aware of the development strategies of various competencies, since these are the ones which he or she will make available for each participating student with co-operative techniques. It is not enough to know how children can solve a task together, it has to be clearly seen what kind of tasks can activate the groups and the individuals indeed; and what concrete skill can be developed in members by each task.
In analysing particular co-operative structures we consider the most important co-operative principles that must be there as a minimum simultaneously so that we can talk about co-operative learning:
- Equal participation and access
- Personal responsibility and individual accountability
- Personally inculsive parallel interaction
- Constructive and encouraging interdependence
- Consciously improved personal, social and cognitive competencies
In case of the development of personal, social and cognitive competencies, there is a vast number of combinations possible, of course, and several competencies can be improved with the help of one particular co-operative structure/technique. In addition, as participants develop, we keep on focussing on consciously improving further competencies when applying the same co-operative learning structure. Therefore we only highlight a few vivid examples of developing competencies in case of each structure.
5.1. Student quartet (trio, quintet)
- The spontaneity and simplicity of this structure, which is based on the instinctive curiosity and desire for feedback, enables the creative imagination of the educator to construct its forms freely.
A short definition of student quartet
In student quartet each micro-group has a task to be solves together, but they only can consider it finished when everyone is able to complete it individually as well, without the help of the others. The teacher checks it by randomly picking individuals.
Student quartet is the basis of every co-operative group tool
Student quartet is a tool of spontaneous learning and thinking together within the group. We simply let group members think about the solution and take notes together, and finally check whether the outcome is clear for everyone. It differs from spontaneous group-work in this essential last step each single member needs to be checked if they know the solution because the teacher will randomly check it afterwards.
The teacher structuring group-work does not interfere with issues of content, and if the students address questions, the teacher directs them to the other groups. She assists them exclusively for the sake of co-operation. For example, she draws attention to the role of the Encourager, if somebody is trailblazing alone, or when somebody has not spoken yet. When she notices that the group has digressed, she asks the Taskmaster how he would channel the conversation back on the subject. She monitors if the Recorder is able to manage written solutions with a view of collective participation, and gets informed by the Timekeeper if the group would complete the task within the assigned time limit.
The collective work in student quartet can take as many forms as the number of co-operative lesson plans made.
Although there are simple processes in student quartet, that is why the roles must be taken seriously, since only they can grant that student quartet, in contrast with traditional group-work, is genuine co-operative work even in the case of a newly formed group. That is to say, the shared thoughts need to be written down (Recorder), selected from (Taskmaster), put in a form (Recorder Taskmaster); equal participation and access (Encourager) and time-limit (Timekeeper) need to be taken care of.
Student quartet is the level at which we can establish the actual ways of developing corresponding personal, social and cognitive competencies. It can be stated that more complex co-operative group structures all have evolved from the spontaneous and effiecient tools of student quartet. That is why we start our chapter on basic co-operative structures by introducing student quartet.
In short, student quartet as a basic unit serves as the basis for almost all co-operative group structures, therefore only very general project-like steps can be defined, which facilitate planning.
The steps of student quartet
- The group receives or chooses a task together.
- The group collects and finds solutions, answers individually as well.
- They check possible solutions together.
- They record (write down, learn, etc.) those they find correct.
- They check if everyone has understood or is able to deduce the solutions or answers found together.
- The teacher checks some individuals randomly.
In the English class, each small group gets 10 cards with one already known word each (including one or two new ones). The groups have to read them out, the members have to pronounce the words one by one (The Encourager can direct it) and write down their meanings (Recorder can manage it). This is their shared task. If there is a word they cannot pronounce or translate, they can send an envoy to another group for pronunciation, to the teacher or check it up in the digital dictionary (preparation, execution). When they have written down the meaning of every word, they check them, and then ask each other one by one. The Taskmaster can control the practice of meaning and pronunciation (check). The teacher stops at a group when they have finished, and asks the words on the cards, randomly picking students, while the group records the results (checking together). Depending on the result, they either get new cards or continue practising with the old ones. The Timekeeper can control assessment and assigning new tasks.
The manifestation of fundamental co-operative principles in student quartet
Equal participation and access
Student quartet ensures equal access to knowledge by the heterogeneity of the group. As we have mentioned several times, not knowing is a form of knowing as well. During co-operation in learning together knowing and not knowing must mutually come to know each other.
The diversity of questions and interpretations enrich the knowledge of those learning together, regardless of the fact that someone is learning or teaching in the process.
Due to the spontaneity of the less formal student quartet structure equal participation is not granted by optionally providing opportunities for expression. In the heat of the debate or searching for a solution ones opinion may go unrecognised in bigger groups (of 4-6). Then we can promote the co-operative skills of the group with the help of roles. For example we can advise the Encourager to apply the poll technique, when not everyone is able to make comments in the heat of the debate; the Recorder or the Taskmaster to use a list of ideas, when we see that the group has collected too many items or ideas, and they just fluster, etc.
At the end of the activity, when the group makes sure that everyone is aware of the application of learning and cognitive schemes and tools necessary for completing the task, and of the solution of the group as well, equal participation is fulfilled in equal access. These last two steps (internal checking and random external checking) makes the student quartet different from traditional small-group activities.
Personal responsibility and individual accountability
In the student quartet members of the group do everything in front of each other reading, comprehension, incomprehension, lazing around, taking notes, evaluation, development , thus every learning form and attitude from individual learning and interpretation to individual presentations are accompanied by the publicity of the group.
Continuous group-publicity based on co-operation provides an excellent framework for developing personal, social and cognitive competencies, since it assumes continuous and genuine feedback between group members. This helps the individual to recognise their own skills yet to be developed, as well as the way and efficiency of this development. Such feedback, at the same time, testifies genuine partnerial support, thus reinforcing personal responsibility.
Members of an outspoken and supportive group are increasingly able to take responsibility for their own attainments and acts. This is granted by the penultimate step the student quartet, when everybody has to prove in front of their groupmates that they have learned the lesson.
Personal responsibility and individual accountability are also present in student quartet when the teacher makes sure of the knowledge of the students randomly in the last step. The ones picked find themselves in a real and concrete situation of responsibility, which is, in addition, in positive interaction with the activity of their peers, since they have to give an account not of individually acquired knowledge, but of genuine individual knowledge supported by the whole group. It is in the interest of peers to prepare one another, because they receive their next task depending on the results of their randomly picked peers. And if they fail, they have to get back to teaching each other, while if they succeed, they can go on...
Personally inculsive parallel interaction
Parallel interaction within the whole large group is granted by the fact that students work in quartets, that is, in groups of four.
In case of the less formal student quartet, when it is not defined what individuals have to do step by step in the group, there is an opportunity for free flow of ideas, ad hoc propositions, emphasis of individual interpretation foci, etc. That is, spontaneity is the first form of parallelism within the group, which is followed by a collective step (e.g. taking notes, making a placard or an action plan together). However, spontaneous brainstorming can be followed when several solutions emerge for a concrete problem by formal parallel interaction based on sharing tasks. For example members divide the spontaneously collected topics or solutions, and they can work in different segments in pairs in a parallel way. For instance, if they have found two ways to answer a mathematical problem, they can test dividing themselves into two pairs if the two proposals lead to the same answer. Thus parallel interaction can occur even within the micro-group in the structure of student quartet.
Constructive and encouraging interdependence
When the small group gets down to complete or discuss a task together, they find out how they can help each other, how individuals can contribute to the success of their joint solutions.
The round checking on understanding is obviously built on the contribution of group members. It is important to highlight once again that those who ask questions for the purpose of understanding, or are insecure in their knowledge of something that might seem evident, contribute to the deeper comprehension of the subject in the same way as those who bring the correct answer in the group. The questions target the topic from various aspects, while the answers given to them reflect on the subject from several points of view, thus group members have to gather the collective knowledge of the group and word it in the most comprehensible way possible, more deeply ingraining their own knowledge.
Consciously improved personal, social and cognitive competencies
By the fact that everyone can bring up their strengths and weaknesses spontaneously in a student quartet, the social abilities of self-esteem and self-confidence can be developed. Simultaneous parallel interacti
Developing empathy: according to Goleman, besides well-developed personal competencies, empathy is based on understanding and developing others. The spontaneous phase and the step of checking understanding provide an opportunity to the conscious improvement these skills.
Making collective opinions, answers and solutions comprehensible for the others (summarising ability) provides an excellent opportunity for developing learning skills. When they also make a note on this together: experience in making learning aids.
5.2. Round Robin and its variations: poll, window, roundtable
- If a task has to be interpreted, the Round Robin ensures that everyone can put their questions into words.
- Round Robins can be made more diverse by using polls, windows and roundtables.
A short definition of Round Robin
The word goes round the members of the group, that is why it is called Round Robin, as long as everyone can have their word within a regulated framework. Each person takes his or her turn within the micro-group. If all this happens in written form, it can be the structure of window or roundtable, detailed below.
Equal opportunity of participation in learning together
In the beginning, it is useful to assign a person to control Round Robin so that it can become natural by way of practice: everyone comments on the topic, asks and answers questions, that is, communicates. Round Robin is a group-tool ensuring equal opportunity of participation.
Round Robin can be used for summarising individually collected items (characteristics, names, formulae, bibliographic data, dates, etc.), for which window and roundtable are serve as handy aids. It also provides an opportunity for individual presentations, when everyone prepares a different segment of the topic and presentation teaching takes place in the micro-group. Its variations:
Poll, which we may know independently of co-operative learning, is an example of Round Robin as well. For example when making a draft together, someone asks: Do you all think it right to write ... here?
Window is a geometric shape divided into as many parts as the number of group members. They number the divisions and put the collected items in them according to how many people have collected the same if two people, then in segment number two, if four, then into number four, etc. At the beginning when introducing the structure of window we use square or round windows, later only the creativity of participants limit the shape (flower, triangle, etc.), since by that time they all will understand the function of the window.
Roundtable is the written form of Round Robin. We consider it a crucial principle in contrast with the roundtable introduced by Kagan that the person who is presenting something should not write at the same time! Let us introduce a rule for it: always the person sitting right from the presenter will be the one who takes notes. This way we also grant that at least one peer will listen to the presenter: the one who takes the notes. Maybe it is more useful to appoint the one who sits opposite the presenter, because their dialogue will create a bridge in the small public space of the micro-group. The other principle is that students must take turns writing. Even the window can be filled in by means of a roundtable: students take turns in writing items to the appropriate place. There are situations in which it is not expedient to separate presenter and recorder: when they write a tale together, from sentence to sentence. However, when we apply roundtable in connection with data, factual knowledge or opinions, the one who presents the topic should not focus on writing at the same time. The role of the Recorder enhances comprehension particularly, since sometimes an opinion presented in several sentences needs to be recorded only in a few words, which necessarily leads to questions aimed at interpretation. The structurally divided roles (presenter recorder) contributes to comprehension, collective interpretation and more and more accurate wording.
In case of project products of roundtable as in case of any other collectively made products it also needs to be taken into account how it will be made available for the group members as well as for the whole class (whether to put them out, copy them, e-mail digital photos of them, etc).
Steps of Round Robin
- The form of individual work must be indicated at the beginning, which can be collecting, opinion, question, etc. For example: Write down your opinions about... or List domestic animals!, etc.
- Individual work, e.g. collecting two domestic animals per person, writing three questions, putting down ones opinion in five sentences, etc.
- Everyone takes turns to speak, step by step, under the Encouragers control. For example everyone says only one item, asks one question, reads out one key sentence at a time in a round, etc. Word keeps going round until all collected items are presented.
- Meanwhile individual or collective notes are taken. Collective notes are necessary when the various materials are put together, individual notes when the collected material is recorded individually for the group members.
- When there is nothing left to present, the results and findings of the Round Robin are summarised: formally checked counted; collective micro-group notes are taken e.g. with the help of a window filled in during the Round Robin; correspondences are found; collective public notes or placards are made for the other groups; or, if possible, the results are presented to the others in words.
The manifestation of fundamental co-operative principles in Round Robin
Equal participation and access
In round Robin every group member can express themselves, so this learning structure enhances equal participation end grants that there are no workhorses or free riders, in Kaganian terms. Everyone makes the outcomes of their individual work public (for example, they tell what they have collected or why they could not collect anything), thus their knowledge will be shared by everyone in the group.
Personal responsibility and individual accountability
Round Robin, window and round table are explicitly the tools of articulating individual work, opinions, etc., and the undertaken tasks in the publicity of the group.
This tool instantly reveals who has not been able to succeed on their own, who needs help, since everyone needs to take a turn.
Personally inculsive parallel interaction
Since Round Robin is a micro-group activity and the micro-groups engage in it simultaneously, it ensures parallel interaction within the large group.
The opinions of each member of all micro-groups can be collected within the time of 3-4 utterances, and this collection takes place in a parallel way.
As the first step of Round Robin, members of a small group perform their individual tasks simultaneously as well, although parallelism is not accompanied by interactions here. Moreover, we need to draw the attention of the micro-groups to the fact that influencing group members by interactions would hamper the manifestation of individual opinions and collections.
Constructive and encouraging interdependence
Everyone is granted to take a turn in Round Robin.
Thus everyones work is integrated in the knowledge of the small group constructive interdependence is achieved.
Consciously improved personal, social and cognitive competencies
Initially the responsibility for individual performance and the ability to recognise strengths and weaknesses is what in focus. In a Round Robin it is revealed about every individual how they have performed at least for the micro-groups each time. This allows for reflection on personal achievements, accurate self-evaluation and for developing of self-confidence.
When students Round Robin, partner-centredness and the appreciation of diversity are the two areas that enable us to take further steps in order to develop empathy.
Planned and concerted partnerial communication and the development of the attitude of observing from various points of view also are achieved here. At the same time, Round Robin, window and roundtable serve as good opportunities for developing interpreting together.
5.3. Group Round Robins
- It is important to know that micro-groups can report on their work in the publicity of the whole class not only in the form of frontal presentations!
A short definition of group Round Robins
In case of group Round Robins, word goes round between micro-groups. Groups express themselves one after the other by way of their representatives (present a result or data or the groups work, etc.). The point of group Round Robins is that word goes around between micro-groups as many times that each member can represent their micro-group at least once in the publicity of the whole large group. In its written version group-work goes around between micro-groups, thus each small group can know about the work of the others, and this happens in parallel interaction, that is, there will be no passive audience!
Equal opportunity of expression in the publicity of the large group
It can be used to check the work of micro-groups within the whole class together, or to sum up questions and remarks in various situations, in a way that provides equal opportunity for everyone to express themselves. Its variations:
Oral group Round Robin is a kind of frontal presentation, therefore it is important that one presentation should not be longer than 1-2 minutes or 2-3 sentences. For example each group work on a different mathematical problem of the same kind, separately. When they are ready, each groups let us say Timekeeper presents their results and the explanation, the formula used for solving the problem shortly. This provides an opportunity for comparing various ways of solving the problem: for discovering new ways or reaffirming the old one.
During the frontal presentation of micro-groups as well as during the teachers or an individual students frontal presentation it is necessary to provide the listening groups (or even each individual) with points to observe. This way the students listening to the presentation really will pay attention, and they can integrate what they hear into their own knowledge. Thus the frontal presentation of a student is not rest-time for the others, but an important step of acquiring knowledge together. The essence of the group Round Robin is the collective responsibility of group members: This is our joint work! Any one of us can present it! This collective responsibility can be developed e.g. if the teacher or the micro-group appoints the presenter of their joint work randomly.
In another form of group Round Robin group Round Robin on pieces of paper we can sum up the work of the whole large group on a subject. Individual collections are checked within the micro-groups (e.g. in form of a window, by Round Robin), then the members write the items to be selected on separate pieces of paper. It is useful to prepare as many (or multiple) pieces of paper as the number of people in a micro-group, thus the basis of consensus can be e.g. that everyone indicates an important fact, item, etc. individually. This is followed by the large-group summary in the form of a group Round Robin. It means that each micro-group presents only one item at a time from the prepared pieces of paper. After each presentation, they stick their piece on a large sheet of paper in front of the large group. The other groups check if they have the same item. If yes, they indicate it, and the teacher or the student who has put out the piece marks the piece with a number referring to the number of groups having the same item (this piece of paper is called weighted). The topic covered this way will not be presented by any other group later. The next piece (question, answer, etc.) is presented by the next group. Word goes round this way until each piece of paper is presented in each group... Finally, there is a collective note on the board which must be copied to each students notebooks it is the Recorders task to check it so that they can work with the jointly collected materials later. If possible, it is useful to organise group Round Robin in at most as many rounds as the number of people in the micro-group with the most members. This way we can pay attention to equal participation and opportunity for expression, in the form of co-operative frontal work.
Written group Round Robin means that the written work of micro-groups goes around from group to group in a pre-defined order (for example to the right to the adjacent group). The groups discuss and interpret the written solutions of some other group. They attach questions on comments in writing. These sheets of paper go around until they get back to their original makers. Then they read the attached questions and comments, and following these, they adjust their original work and/or put down their arguments against modifications next to the questions and comments on the attached sheet. It is important, that if possible, there should be no more rounds than the number of group members in the micro-groups. That is, one sheet of paper should go round between four or five micro-groups, otherwise, if each paper goes round each group in a class made up of ten micro-groups, it certainly will enhance publicity, however, it takes too much time. Written group Round Robin can be used, for example, to create definitions, check solutions between groups, extend collections, etc. For instance each group solves as mathematical problem, and then passes the sheet containing their deduction and answer. While the sheet goes round, each group checks the others solution. It only has to be checked that the remarks or corrections are clear for everyone. If not, they have to send an envoy to the group that attached the remark in question. After that, depending on success, the next problem can come.
Another version of written group Round Robin is task assignment, the beauty of which is that the children themselves propose a task to another group. They prepare the written worksheet with the questions in a roundtable, then pass it to the adjacent group. The micro-groups complete it, also in a roundtable, then send it back to the senders. They check their solutions, they make an evaluation sheet and a message (the corrected worksheet, postcard, pantomime message, applause, etc.), and send them back to the group that has solved the problem. This latter act if the messages are short also can take place in an oral Round Robin. The worksheet can serve the purpose of individual checking as well, but then as many worksheets or worksheet segments have to be made as the number of students in the solving group, and they even can indicate which task must be solved by which member.
Note Round Robin is the application of written group Round Robin within the group, that is, it belongs to Round Robin, however, we think that it is logical to present it here. Group members prepare a note each individually or based on discussion and pass them to their neighbour. Now they have to check if they can present the note written by their group member if not, they ask questions or maybe add comments to the note. When the notes have come around, the teacher can ask any student about the contents of any note. Individual and group performance can be checked by random picking. Note Round Robin teaches children write eligibly and use accurate wording; this is helped by the fact that at least three of their peers will see if they can work on the basis of the notes written by them. The questions and interpretative proposals or remarks bring them closer and closer to the written recording accurate and useful, substantial statements.
In moving group Round Robin the solutions provided by the groups are made in a form that can be stuck out on the wall of the classroom or put on the group desks. The groups go around the written products (placards) like in a gallery (Kagan calls a version of moving group Round Robin gallery tour as well). If we let the groups simply walk around by themselves, they end up with a boring gallery tour. Therefore it is important to control the activity directly. This control can be some kind of kinetic game, because here physical activity needs to be controlled and paced in order to improve attention. Another way of direct control is when we appoint tour guides to each micro-group (e.g. the Taskmasters at first, then the Encouragers, and so forth). The tour guide interprets the next placard the production of which he was involved in to his own micro-group, or directs the interpretation of the group-work not known by the group by guiding questions.
The steps of group Round Robin
- Micro-groups prepare to present their joint work in some form (e.g. student quartet, Round Robin, window, the written product of a roundtable session) e.g. they make a placard or notes, if they have not prepared it aforehand; they collect items in a window or in a roundtable.
- Initially the teacher, later the groups themselves control the utterances of each group (I.e. they respective representatives) one by one, for the same time, or equal participation in the revision of the written products.
- Each group (and possibly each group member) takes a turn in Round Robin. Most of the statements are recorded in a visual form as well. The work of each group reaches all other groups in case of written and moving group Round Robin.
The manifestation of fundamental co-operative principles in group Round Robin
Equal participation and access
It provides an opportunity for expression equally for each group. It makes the knowledge of each group accessible to any other group.
In case of the written Round Robin prepared in the form of roundtable, e.g. tasksetting, it is also granted that everybody takes part individually in preparing and processing the written documents. Although in group Round Robin the scene of publicity is the large group, there is still opportunity for individual participation and access for each participant. Group Round Robin with notes, when everyone takes a note to the board, is such an example. As we see, co-operative learning structures also use frontal tools, since there are tasks which are necessary to be performed in the publicity of the whole class. The essential difference from the techniques traditionally called frontal is ensuring equal participation and the chance of equal individual access supported by joint preparation. It is a crucial difference that group Round Robin always has to be preceded by parallel interaction, so that the notes can be assessed and weighted in the publicity of the micro-group before the get out. This may be one of the par excellence evidences in favour of inclusive pedagogy, that is, the more equal access each individual has to common goods of knowledge, the deeper and more wide-ranging knowledge the whole community learning together has, even at the level of the individual.
Personal responsibility and individual accountability
The joint work of the group is represented by each members individually as well. Personal responsibility extends to the publicity outside the micro-group. Loyalty to the other groups also strengthens loyalty to group members: I am working more carefully on my task now, because not only you will listen to me, but the other groups as well!
Personally inculsive parallel interaction
It is present in case of written and moving group Round Robins, where groups meet each others productions at the same time, in a parallel way.
Oral group Round Robin or Round Robin with notes count as frontal structures, although they always succeed or conclude a micro-group activity, that is, an activity granting parallel interaction concerning the large group! However, this step does not include parallel interaction. Individual participation can be reinforced by means of individual note-taking. The best solution is when individuals in the audience listen to and record the presentations of other groups with different points in mind. The teacher or the presenting group can check their understanding by random questions.
Constructive and encouraging interdependence
Since Group Round Robin is the conclusive part of some shorter or longer micro-group activity, no group can conceal the fact that they have not been able to complete something for a long time the groups can and do build on the others work. The learning process in group round Robin is based on the project products of individual micro-groups, that is, micro-groups obtain complex knowledge by referring to each others work. Large groups usually make their joint notes and references on the basis of the project products presented during group Round Robins. This is initially co-ordinated by the teacher, later by the groups themselves. This jointly produced note strengthens positive interdependence further.
Consciously improved personal, social and cognitive competencies
There is an excellent chance to develop the skills of self-control (the ability to handle hindering emotions), performance motivation and commitment (adaptation to group goals, identification with goal results). In group Round Robin the same way as in Round Robin the publicity of performance of being structures, and not only the publicity of good performance. For example during a traditional frontal lesson I may evade revealing the fact that I am not able to follow the explanations on the board. Group Round Robin, that is the publicity of the joint performance of individuals working together in micro-groups, eliminates the chance of going through collective learning periods without understanding, since the performance of the group receives feedback every time.
Participants recognise the strengths and weaknesses of their own and the other groups as well, thus being able to give and ask for help in a partner-centred way. By appreciating diversity they provide an opportunity for other groups to succeed, and with the help of group Round Robin they are able to realise the actual moods and resources of the large group. In Golemans words, they obtain a kind of political consciousness.
From learning competencies, here we particularly highlight individual presentation in front of a large group, the summary of joint opinions or solutions. Group round Robin helps the ability to speak publicly by the fact that the individual can prepare for it in the micro-group, so they have the support of their own micro-group during the presentation.
5.4. Group jigsaw
- The easiest way of achieving co-operation between children is that when they are only able to complete the jigsaw puzzle of the lesson together.
A short definition of group jigsaw
Everyone in a micro-group gets a different task according to their abilities, but these tasks are complementary within the micro-group. Members work on their own task or segment of the lesson. When they finish, they all teach the others their own segment or important knowledge related to the task, one by one.
A tool for differentiation and inclusion
Jigsaw is a structure within the micro-group in which the content sources (subject materials, textbook, references, learning aids, ways of learning, etc.) are received by the group members in segments. They need to put together the available materials like a jigsaw puzzle. Group jigsaw after the distribution of segments always starts with individual processing, when the members work individually on different segments and with different sources, which they convey to the others then.
The division of content materials is possible in as many ways as teachers prepare their lesson plans.
For example, when reviewing a section, we can divide the contents of a whole lesson, or even a whole topic between the members of a group. But we can as well choose to process a topic or an era from different aspects or according to different authors, e.g. in secondary school. It is possible to create a jigsaw of the sequential steps of a process or events. For example when children get three parts of a folk tale and they have to put them in the correct order. In comparison with the traditional and, it is true, essential triad of introduction, main body, conclusion, they will be able to discover further, more exquisite formal elements of textual cohesion.
With the help of the jigsaw structure education really can be made inclusive: everyone can choose or get a segment, source or way of processing in accordance with their needs or attainment. This way the system adapts to the student in reality, ensuring equal participation and contribution to joint learning and success without extra lessons and private tutors. As mentioned in the previous chapter, jigsaw can be applied on the basis of the filters of the ways of acquisition, perception and comprehension. When a child in the micro-group is still only getting acquainted with books, the other one already collects horse breeds from a book about horses. And their third peers lists the features of horses based on her own (complex tactile, visual, verbal, olfactory, kinaesthetic) experience since she rides a horse.
The steps of group jigsaw
- Each group gets as many segments of the material as the number of its members.
- The segments are distributed by consensual choice or by the teachers instruction within the group.
- Individual reading each member works individually.
- Individual note-taking each member works individually (e.g. in a chart).
- Individual presentation in Round Robin, based on individual notes (co-ordinated by the Encourager).
- Collective interpretation (co-ordinated e.g. by the Taskmaster). Making a collective product note, placard base don individual work and joint interpretation (it is expedient to have it co-ordinated by the Recorder).
The manifestation of fundamental co-operative principles in group jigsaw
Equal participation and access
Everyone has their own task to which they are provided with personalised aspects, and about which they have to report to the others in a later step of the jigsaw. For presentation, group members can use e.g. Round Robin or roundtable, thus strengthening enhancing equal access to help from their own group.
Personal responsibility and individual accountability
During individual processing everybody has to complete their own task so that the group can access the whole material and can be successful in acquiring knowledge.
During the presentation the Round Robins of the Encourager and the Taskmaster ensure immediate and individual monitoring and report on individually completed tasks.
Personally inculsive parallel interaction
Jigsaw structure ensures sharing information, so each micro-group works independently and interactively in order to gain access to each others segments, thus manifesting the principle of parallel interaction in the large group. Since in the micro-group individual work takes place, here we cannot speak of parallel interaction.
Constructive and encouraging interdependence
Jigsaw is optimal from the point that group members only can obtain the subject material{24} as a whole if they build on each other. The necessity to see it as a whole inspires collective interpretation and real individual work. Their collective knowledge can be represented e.g. on the placards or posters they make together, that is, group members visually manifest their work built on each others performance.
Consciously improved personal, social and cognitive competencies
In jigsaw, higher levels of personal competencies are present: individual responsibility, conscientiousness and even innovation, when someone becomes open to new ideas and approaches. In jigsaw every student contributes to collective learning with some kind of individual effort and production in accordance with their abilities, needs and development plans.
Social competencies are the ones which are really in the focus here: communication, leadership, conflict management, management of changes and team spirit. When learning together arises from the jigsaw of individual performances, we direct the members of groups learning together towards individual learning. For example, in the history lesson one person has to study economy, another social structure, the third culture, the fourth international relations they necessarily read, interpret, take notes and give presentations individually.
Let us see how differentiated instruction can be manifest in the jigsaw structure.
In our fourth-grade micro-group learning about domestic animals, the pupil who is able to read book on his own, can gather information e.g. about horses or other domestic animals which cannot be found in the course book, only in other animal books. He will be the Librarian, and his first task is to find animal books on his own. His goal is to task as beautiful ones as possible, with much data. Another child collects information from the textbook by underlining and taking notes she will be the Recorder. The third group member who is still only getting acquainted with books writes down which animals they are going to learn about on the basis of the titles and pictures he will be our Taskmaster.
Later the Librarian collects the information not found in the textbook on the basis of the Recorders work. The Recorder selects the next animal to be made notes of from the Taskmasters list.
To check, the Librarian inspects if the Taskmaster has managed to collect all the animals from the course book, and the Recorder interpreting the text checks if there really is any additional information in the animal books from the library, and adds them to the collective note about the given animal. The Taskmaster finds and underlines the notes of the Recorder about horses, etc. in his own book.
We can see in this example that group members can practise various forms of learning even at different levels, moreover, they can make use of each others work.
The Taskmaster working on the basis of textbook chapter headlines and pictures has made a list of the animals to be learned. This will serve as the academic basis of the group.
The Recorder has made a note and presented it to the others. Later it will serve as a sample for further notes to be taken.
The taskmaster who is only beginning to read for real reaches for the horse note made by the co-ordination of the Recorder for help so that he can find underline the important parts in his own book. He feels an urge to find some new information that may be added to the Recorders note. He keeps searching for the Recorders texts in his own book until he is able to take a similar note of the next animal himself. When he is able to do this, he takes over the role of the Recorder until he has practised taking notes well enough.
Meanwhile, the Recorder checks the Librarians information obtained from other books about horses, until she also takes fancy to do individual research in the library, and when she has given her role over to the Taskmaster, she can be the next Librarian.
The Librarian working individually collects books from the library to the list assembled by the Taskmaster, and makes a bibliography. They will have a thematic list, a continuously complemented bibliography, and a collectively complemented and checked note based on textbooks and other sources about each domestic animal to be studied. The Librarian and the others as well choose as they wish, but exclusively on the basis of the project products they have made. The Taskmaster only works and checks the schoolbook note on the basis of the Recorders notes. The Recorder only checks and assembles the Librarians information in the collective note, and/or takes notes individually of the textbook about an animal the taskmaster has written on the list, especially when there are other sources as well in the bibliography list. The Librarian only can choose books about an animal which is listed in the Taskmasters list. He immediately has to write down the animal he has chosen, and/or he can choose an animal about which there already is a textbook note, since additional information has to be found and taken notes of.
The Librarian, besides taking notes, also can invent some tasks for his peers to incite them to read, so he will become a Propagator, since his role is being taken over by the Recorder, who is becoming a Librarian. The jigsaw outlined above can make these roles redundant within two or three months, or at most in a year maybe two at the age of 10-12. It is very useful if they have the chance to gain experience about domestic animals, maybe even some work experience as well.
After a while students divide thematic reading comprehension tasks on their own: they process the course book text, collect additional sources and process the text from these sources, compare texts from different sources and document them independently. They give mutual help with each others learning, learning individually. At this point, a new stage of learning together starts...
5.5. Expert jigsaw
- If we think it important to give children individual tasks within their micro-groups, it is also important to realise that their individual attempts also can be supported by their peers working in other micro-groups!
A short definition of expert jigsaw
Expert jigsaw is an inter-group structure based on the division of content sources (subject material) between groups.
The essential difference from simple jigsaw here is the fact that while someone has a task alone in their group, in each of the other micro-groups there is one person who has the same task. In expert jigsaw the participants working on the same task or segment of the material make up a new micro-group, this is what we call an expert group. Its members become experts in their topic. Then they go back their original micro-groups and, like in group jigsaw, teach their own segment or the most important conclusions of their task.
Co-operation between micro-groups during learning together
The division of the content to be processed and learned together is possible in as many ways as the numbers of project plans made. For example, a section of the material or all chapters of a topic can be divided between the groups. Division can happen either by free choice or under the teachers guidance. Sections of different amount or depth, but of complementary nature also can be distributed, thus serving the purpose of differentiation.
Steps of expert jigsaw
1. Forming expert groups
The easiest solution is when the number of expert groups can be divided by the number of members in original micro-groups. For example if there are four people in a group, they can take part in the work of four different expert groups at the same time.
For example, when learning about plane figures in grade 2, in a class of 32 I make up two triangle expert groups of 4 members each, two circle groups, two square ones2 and two rectangle groups. The expert groups get acquainted with plane figures in various ways (practising Waldorfian form drawing techniques, cutting out, colouring, transforming, using them for making pictures, measuring their sides or perhaps angles, etc.). The expert groups working on the same plane figure send envoys to each other for checking, so that the questions, remarks, conclusions, and knowledge of the two groups can be collated. The experts group can be made up randomly, for example on the account of randomly assigned roles; that is, the same roles of the different micro-groups are gathered in an expert group: Encouragers to one of them, Taskmasters to another one, etc. They also can be made up consciously for instance, by using named collage pieces.
2. Providing expert materials
Groups work with the provided materials in student quartet or jigsaw structures. Sticking to the example of plane figures, they get acquainted with the same shape in four different ways, then take turns in changing their methods in rotation. The second possibility helps in differentiation again.
3. Individual reading, comprehension, note-taking, problem-solving
If the text, exercise, etc. is the same, one participant reads it out while the others take notes; then the next one starts reading, and so on. If the text, exercise, etc. is different for everyone, first they work and take notes individually, then they refer to their work for the members of the expert group, like in group jigsaw.
4. Joint interpretation; the expert group summarises their conclusions and results
Envoys are sent out, if necessary, so that the conclusions of the other expert group working on the same topic also can get into the expert material.
5. Making joint note or document comprehensible for the others
It can be documented in an expert project book, in individual notes, or in a public expert poster. In our example of second-graders, they write a sentence about each expert activity (cutting out, cutting up, drawing, etc.). The written work of expert group they being second-graders can be helped by giving them the basic structures of the sentences, and they only have to fill in the missing parts.
6. Taking individual notes; preparing for return to the original group; checking if each expert will be able to convey the knowledge of their expert group to their original ones based on their joint notes, own ideas and the guidance of others.
7. Return to the original groups
For examples if I have formed expert groups by putting persons with the same roles in one group, the everybody from the expert group of Encouragers goes back to their original groups.
8. Each member presents their own field of expertise in the micro-group
After the presentation, the expert checks understanding by detailed questioning of their peers. Round Robin is co-ordinated by the Encourager.
9. Collective interpretation based on the presentation
It can be guided e.g. by the Taskmaster with round Robin (e.g. poll). The different expert materials brought from expert groups have to be processed together in the original micro-groups again, so that the non-expert members can access expert topics, ask questions, brainstorm, repeat what they have learned.
10. Making a collective, summarised note based on the work of the four expert groups
It can be written in a project book, individually into notebooks, or on a public poster.
The manifestation of fundamental co-operative principles in group jigsaw
Equal participation and access
The jigsaw only becomes complete when everybody takes part in the learning processes equally, and this is structurally granted in the structure of expert jigsaw. It can prove well how closely equal participation and equal access are connected. The more efficient ones participation in the jigsaw, the deeper and more comprehensive individuals knowledge will be in the field of the others.
Personal responsibility and individual accountability
By the fact that everybody works far from their group, in another group, then returns, it will be revealed clearly for the others what they have done. A trivial example: if all the other groups know that a triangle has three sides, but our group does not, then it is clear that things got stuck at our triangle expert.
Personally inculsive parallel interaction
All sections are being processed in the expert groups at the same time. For example, in history, the simultaneously existing realms and countries of an era are there at the same time in the expert groups. Thus when the original micro-groups sum up their knowledge, they will be able to observe international relations and to make comparisons of various countries.
Learning forms individual reading, note-taking, presentation, collective interpretation and note-taking are practised simultaneously, in a parallel way, in interactions with their expert peers, in contrast to the individual work of the preparation stage of group jigsaw.
Constructive and encouraging interdependence
The group member sent to the expert group will obtain materials and expertise the other group members will access through him or her. Thus, the members of the micro-group depend on each other when conveying their knowledge. At the same time, no one is left alone, since they prepare together in the expert group with the representatives of other micro-groups who are responsible for the same task/field. Different fields of expertise inspire group members to collective interpretation and note-taking, since this is the only way to acquire each others expertise and access the whole topic.
Consciously improved personal, social and cognitive competencies
In the field of personal competencies the powerful positive interdependence of expert jigsaw is particularly suitable for improving reliability, conscientiousness and adaptability. Among social competencies, the same skills can be emphasised as in case of group jigsaw: communication, leadership, conflict handling, change management, team spirit.
Expert mosaic enhances the development of competencies necessary for individual learning more than simple jigsaw, because it provides an additional support group for the expert activity as well. The expert group. This way the individual will not be left alone to process the chosen or assigned task. (In contrast, in jigsaw everybody works individually on their expert field.) Getting back to our example of plane figures, children learn about them in expert groups of four. For example they have to cut out their respective shapes together. Each group is given a sheet of paper with as many plane figures (triangle, circle, square or rectangle) as the number of people in the expert group. They have to cut them out in the following way: one is cutting while the others hold the paper for him or her, but the one who is cutting cannot touch the paper. When he has finished, he passes the scissors and holds the paper for the next one. This way everyone will have a shape that they can take with them to their original group as a visual aid. When they have cut out the forms, they also can try to draw the shape in crayon, e.g. with the help of Waldorfs form drawing techniques, etc.
When they have approached the task from every aspect in accordance with individual and collective development plans, they return to their original groups and present essential information and forms of processing e.g. form drawing techniques to their peers. They do all these with the help of their project products made in the expert group for example with the cut out shape or showing how to make a drawing of the shape.
23 Robert E. Slavin: Using Student Team Learning (The Johns Hopkins University. Baltimore, Maryland, 1986.) also lists only four basic techniques.
24 In our opinion, there exists no such thing as subject material. We rather speak about information and cultural values, to the approcach of which textbooks are not necessarily the best means. Sometimes a novel, a logic puzzle, a collective experience, etc. takes us closer to it during learning together.